68
Pathway
Taurine and Hypotaurine Metabolism
There is an organic acid known as Taurine, which is a derivative product of sulfhydryl amino acid (which contains sulfur), as well as cysteine. The synthesis or metabolism in mammalian systems of this acid transpires within the pancreas in such a fashion that it utilizes a pathway known as the cysteine sulfinic acid pathway.
To put this process in context, its occurrence is often seen in vivo, in hepatocytes, and is fundamental in the cyclical process of recovering bile acids from the intenstine, turning them back into salts and returning them to the bile.
In essence the cysteine pathway induces a sulfhydryl group to be oxidized, creating cysteine sulfinic acid, by utilizing the appropriate enzymes (ie cysteine dioxygenase). This new acid undergoes decarboxylation creating a new compound: hypotaurine. This process goes on as Taurine now is subjected to conjugation vis a vis its amino terminal group. This includes acids such as chenodeoxycholic acid and cholic acid, and in turn the formation of bile salts occurs.
Moreover, this entire process can be catalyzed via bile acid and a special amino acid N-acetyltransferase.
Metabolic
PW000038
Center
PathwayVisualizationContext38
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2000
#000099
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68
Taurine and Hypotaurine Metabolism
There is an organic acid known as Taurine, which is a derivative product of sulfhydryl amino acid (which contains sulfur), as well as cysteine. The synthesis or metabolism in mammalian systems of this acid transpires within the pancreas in such a fashion that it utilizes a pathway known as the cysteine sulfinic acid pathway.
To put this process in context, its occurrence is often seen in vivo, in hepatocytes, and is fundamental in the cyclical process of recovering bile acids from the intenstine, turning them back into salts and returning them to the bile.
In essence the cysteine pathway induces a sulfhydryl group to be oxidized, creating cysteine sulfinic acid, by utilizing the appropriate enzymes (ie cysteine dioxygenase). This new acid undergoes decarboxylation creating a new compound: hypotaurine. This process goes on as Taurine now is subjected to conjugation vis a vis its amino terminal group. This includes acids such as chenodeoxycholic acid and cholic acid, and in turn the formation of bile salts occurs.
Moreover, this entire process can be catalyzed via bile acid and a special amino acid N-acetyltransferase.
Metabolic
1
253
27
SubPathway
377
448
Compound
8
254
6
SubPathway
378
448
Compound
8
255
88
SubPathway
379
171
Compound
8
58
Lehninger, A.L. Lehninger principles of biochemistry (4th ed.) (2005). New York: W.H Freeman.
68
Pathway
59
Salway, J.G. Metabolism at a glance (3rd ed.) (2004). Alden, Mass.: Blackwell Pub.
68
Pathway
279629
21519760
De la Puerta C, Arrieta FJ, Balsa JA, Botella-Carretero JI, Zamarron I, Vazquez C: Taurine and glucose metabolism: a review. Nutr Hosp. 2010 Nov-Dec;25(6):910-9.
68
Pathway
1
Cell
CL:0000000
2
Platelet
CL:0000233
3
Neuron
CL:0000540
6
Myocyte
CL:0000187
5
Hepatocyte
CL:0000182
1
Homo sapiens
9606
Eukaryote
Human
3
Escherichia coli
562
Prokaryote
18
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
4932
Eukaryote
Yeast
4
Arabidopsis thaliana
3702
Eukaryote
Thale cress
25
Escherichia coli (strain K12)
83333
Prokaryote
23
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
287
Prokaryote
12
Mus musculus
10090
Eukaryote
Mouse
17
Rattus norvegicus
10116
Eukaryote
Rat
5
Bos taurus
9913
Eukaryote
Cattle
10
Drosophila melanogaster
7227
Eukaryote
Fruit fly
6
Caenorhabditis elegans
6239
Eukaryote
Roundworm
24
Solanum lycopersicum
4081
Eukaryote
Tomato
49
Bathymodiolus platifrons
220390
Eukaryote
Deep sea mussel
2
Bacteria
2
Prokaryote
Bacteria
21
Xenopus laevis
8355
Eukaryote
African clawed frog
60
Nitzschia sp.
0001
Eukaryote
Nitzschia4
5
Cytoplasm
GO:0005737
1
Cytosol
GO:0005829
6
Lysosome
GO:0005764
11
Extracellular Space
GO:0005615
31
Periplasmic Space
GO:0005620
2
Mitochondrion
GO:0005739
34
Plant-Type Vacuole
GO:0000325
35
Chloroplast
GO:0009507
4
Peroxisome
GO:0005777
13
Endoplasmic Reticulum
GO:0005783
10
Cell Membrane
GO:0005886
16
Lysosomal Lumen
GO:0043202
7
Endoplasmic Reticulum Membrane
GO:0005789
3
Mitochondrial Matrix
GO:0005759
18
Melanosome Membrane
GO:0033162
14
Mitochondrial Outer Membrane
GO:0005741
24
Mitochondrial Intermembrane Space
GO:0005758
36
Membrane
GO:0016020
12
Mitochondrial Inner Membrane
GO:0005743
25
Golgi Apparatus
GO:0005794
2
Endothelium
BTO:0000393
1
Liver
BTO:0000759
72
9
4
Adrenal Medulla
BTO:0000049
71
8
3
Sympathetic Nervous System
BTO:0001832
28
Stomach
BTO:0001307
155
26
9
Muscle
BTO:0000887
141
18
24
Brain
BTO:0000142
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16
8
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1
1
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1
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PW_BS000524
448
L-Cysteine
HMDB0000574
Cysteine is a naturally occurring, sulfur-containing amino acid that is found in most proteins, although only in small quantities. Cysteine is unique amongst the twenty natural amino acids as it contains a thiol group. Thiol groups can undergo oxidation/reduction (redox) reactions; when cysteine is oxidized it can form cystine, which is two cysteine residues joined by a disulfide bond. This reaction is reversible since the reduction of this disulphide bond regenerates two cysteine molecules. The disulphide bonds of cystine are crucial to defining the structures of many proteins. Cysteine is often involved in electron-transfer reactions, and help the enzyme catalyze its reaction. Cysteine is also part of the antioxidant glutathione. N-Acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC) is a form of cysteine where an acetyl group is attached to cysteine's nitrogen atom and is sold as a dietary supplement. Cysteine is named after cystine, which comes from the Greek word kustis meaning bladder (cystine was first isolated from kidney stones). Oxidation of cysteine can produce a disulfide bond with another thiol and further oxidation can produce sulphfinic or sulfonic acids. The cysteine thiol group is also a nucleophile and can undergo addition and substitution reactions. Thiol groups become much more reactive when they are ionized, and cysteine residues in proteins have pKa values close to neutrality, so they are often in their reactive thiolate form in the cell. The thiol group also has a high affinity for heavy metals and proteins containing cysteine will bind metals such as mercury, lead, and cadmium tightly. Due to this ability to undergo redox reactions, cysteine has antioxidant properties. Cysteine is an important source of sulfur in human metabolism, and although it is classified as a non-essential amino acid, cysteine may be essential for infants, the elderly, and individuals with certain metabolic disease or who suffer from malabsorption syndromes. Cysteine may at some point be recognized as an essential or conditionally essential amino acid (Wikipedia). Cysteine is important in energy metabolism. As cystine, it is a structural component of many tissues and hormones. Cysteine has clinical uses ranging from baldness to psoriasis to preventing smoker's hack. In some cases, oral cysteine therapy has proved excellent for treatment of asthmatics, enabling them to stop theophylline and other medications. Cysteine also enhances the effect of topically applied silver, tin, and zinc salts in preventing dental cavities. In the future, cysteine may play a role in the treatment of cobalt toxicity, diabetes, psychosis, cancer, and seizures (http://www.dcnutrition.com/AminoAcids/).
52-90-4
C00097
5862
17561
CYS
5653
DB00151
N[C@@H](CS)C(O)=O
C3H7NO2S
InChI=1S/C3H7NO2S/c4-2(1-7)3(5)6/h2,7H,1,4H2,(H,5,6)/t2-/m0/s1
XUJNEKJLAYXESH-REOHCLBHSA-N
(2R)-2-amino-3-sulfanylpropanoic acid
121.158
121.019749163
-0.72
3
L-cysteine
0
0
DBMET00503
FDB012678
(+)-2-amino-3-mercaptopropionic acid;(2r)-2-amino-3-mercaptopropanoate;(2r)-2-amino-3-mercaptopropanoic acid;(2r)-2-amino-3-sulfanylpropanoate;(2r)-2-amino-3-sulfanylpropanoic acid;(r)-(+)-cysteine;(r)-2-amino-3-mercaptopropanoate;(r)-2-amino-3-mercaptopropanoic acid;(r)-2-amino-3-mercapto-propanoate;(r)-2-amino-3-mercapto-propanoic acid;(r)-cysteine;2-amino-3-mercaptopropanoate;2-amino-3-mercaptopropanoic acid;2-amino-3-mercaptopropionate;2-amino-3-mercaptopropionic acid;3-mercapto-l-alanine;Acetylcysteine;B-mercaptoalanine;Carbocysteine;Cisteina;Cisteinum;Cystein;Cysteine;Cysteinum;Free cysteine;Half-cystine;L cysteine;L-(+)-cysteine;L-2-amino-3-mercaptopropanoate;L-2-amino-3-mercaptopropanoic acid;L-2-amino-3-mercaptopropionic acid;L-cystein;L-cysteine;Polycysteine;Thioserine;Alpha-amino-beta-thiolpropionic acid;Beta-mercaptoalanine;C;Cys;E920;L-zystein;(2r)-2-amino-3-sulphanylpropanoate;(2r)-2-amino-3-sulphanylpropanoic acid;L-2-amino-3-mercaptopropionate
PW_C000448
Cys
174
8
1867
2
2864
9
2870
15
5767
101
5801
108
6756
117
6759
107
7078
188
7496
224
7594
160
8256
227
8260
225
12012
281
12269
151
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43730
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132
80704
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120125
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120131
124
120580
126
122863
118
123210
443
125491
297
125498
299
127029
205
127035
388
1065
Oxygen
HMDB0001377
Oxygen is the third most abundant element in the universe after hydrogen and helium and the most abundant element by mass in the Earth's crust. Diatomic oxygen gas constitutes 20.9% of the volume of air. All major classes of structural molecules in living organisms, such as proteins, carbohydrates, and fats, contain oxygen, as do the major inorganic compounds that comprise animal shells, teeth, and bone. Oxygen in the form of O2 is produced from water by cyanobacteria, algae and plants during photosynthesis and is used in cellular respiration for all living organisms. Green algae and cyanobacteria in marine environments provide about 70% of the free oxygen produced on earth and the rest is produced by terrestrial plants. Oxygen is used in mitochondria to help generate adenosine triphosphate (ATP) during oxidative phosphorylation. For animals, a constant supply of oxygen is indispensable for cardiac viability and function. To meet this demand, an adult human, at rest, inhales 1.8 to 2.4 grams of oxygen per minute. This amounts to more than 6 billion tonnes of oxygen inhaled by humanity per year. At a resting pulse rate, the heart consumes approximately 8-15 ml O2/min/100 g tissue. This is significantly more than that consumed by the brain (approximately 3 ml O2/min/100 g tissue) and can increase to more than 70 ml O2/min/100 g myocardial tissue during vigorous exercise. As a general rule, mammalian heart muscle cannot produce enough energy under anaerobic conditions to maintain essential cellular processes; thus, a constant supply of oxygen is indispensable to sustain cardiac function and viability. However, the role of oxygen and oxygen-associated processes in living systems is complex, and they and can be either beneficial or contribute to cardiac dysfunction and death (through reactive oxygen species). Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are a family of oxygen-derived free radicals that are produced in mammalian cells under normal and pathologic conditions. Many ROS, such as the superoxide anion (O2-)and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), act within blood vessels, altering mechanisms mediating mechanical signal transduction and autoregulation of cerebral blood flow. Reactive oxygen species are believed to be involved in cellular signaling in blood vessels in both normal and pathologic states. The major pathway for the production of ROS is by way of the one-electron reduction of molecular oxygen to form an oxygen radical, the superoxide anion (O2-). Within the vasculature there are several enzymatic sources of O2-, including xanthine oxidase, the mitochondrial electron transport chain, and nitric oxide (NO) synthases. Studies in recent years, however, suggest that the major contributor to O2- levels in vascular cells is the membrane-bound enzyme NADPH-oxidase. Produced O2- can react with other radicals, such as NO, or spontaneously dismutate to produce hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). In cells, the latter reaction is an important pathway for normal O2- breakdown and is usually catalyzed by the enzyme superoxide dismutase (SOD). Once formed, H2O2 can undergo various reactions, both enzymatic and nonenzymatic. The antioxidant enzymes catalase and glutathione peroxidase act to limit ROS accumulation within cells by breaking down H2O2 to H2O. Metabolism of H2O2 can also produce other, more damaging ROS. For example, the endogenous enzyme myeloperoxidase uses H2O2 as a substrate to form the highly reactive compound hypochlorous acid. Alternatively, H2O2 can undergo Fenton or Haber-Weiss chemistry, reacting with Fe2+/Fe3+ ions to form toxic hydroxyl radicals (-.OH). (PMID: 17027622, 15765131).
7782-44-7
C00007
977
15379
CPD-6641
952
O=O
O2
InChI=1S/O2/c1-2
MYMOFIZGZYHOMD-UHFFFAOYSA-N
dioxygen
31.9988
31.989829244
0
singlet oxygen
0
0
FDB022589
Dioxygen;Molecular oxygen;O2;Oxygen;Oxygen molecule;[oo];Dioxygene;Disauerstoff;E 948;E-948;E948
PW_C001065
O2
95
9
110
5
245
16
500
18
505
8
549
14
625
28
638
3
649
10
674
31
688
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15
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4
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33
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1375
49
2016
24
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22
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147
6129
159
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7032
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160
7319
213
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151
11816
216
11864
198
11883
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211
12057
225
12063
164
12247
286
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226
12325
249
12706
291
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292
13004
298
13016
300
13026
301
13038
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13260
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42276
17
42657
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332
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120883
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122573
418
122689
384
122798
374
122822
443
123027
135
123060
376
123128
447
123139
136
123163
448
123176
119
123187
450
123219
137
123226
120
123459
451
123609
118
123669
398
124163
469
124214
464
124669
399
125145
454
125275
121
125425
482
125706
478
125731
483
125737
297
125740
479
125884
481
126100
299
126272
484
126522
495
126721
489
126825
480
126964
502
126986
207
127198
209
127214
208
127219
205
127222
501
127305
504
127345
206
127557
388
127574
515
127835
389
128081
395
128095
390
128312
506
128432
391
789
3-Sulfinoalanine
HMDB0000996
3-Sulfinoalanine or cysteinesulfinic acid is a N-methyl-D-aspartate agonist. It is a product of cysteine dioxygenase or CDO [EC 1.13.11.20]. In humans cysteine catabolism is tightly regulated via regulation of cysteine dioxygenase (CDO) levels in the liver, with the turnover of CDO protein being dramatically decreased when intracellular cysteine levels increase. This occurs in response to changes in the intracellular cysteine concentration via changes in the rate of CDO ubiquitination and degradation. Expressed at high levels in the liver with lower levels in the kidney, brain, and lung, cysteine dioxygenase catalyzes the addition of molecular oxygen to the sulfhydryl group of cysteine, yielding cysteinesulfinic acid. The oxidative catabolism of cysteine to cysteinesulfinate by CDO represents an irreversible loss of cysteine from the free amino acid pool. Once generated, cysteinesulfinate is shuttled into several pathways including hypotaurine/taurine synthesis, sulfite/sulfate production, and the generation of pyruvate.
1115-65-7
C00606
439270
41721
3-SULFINOALANINE
16743745
N[C@@H](CS(O)=O)C(O)=O
C3H7NO4S
InChI=1S/C3H7NO4S/c4-2(3(5)6)1-9(7)8/h2H,1,4H2,(H,5,6)(H,7,8)/t2-/m0/s1
ADVPTQAUNPRNPO-REOHCLBHSA-N
(2R)-2-amino-3-[(R)-sulfino]propanoic acid
153.157
153.009578407
-0.70
3
3-sulfinoalanine
0
-1
FDB022358
3-sulfino- alanine;3-sulfino-l-alanine;3-sulphino-l-alanine;Alanine 3-sulfinic acid;Cysteine hydrogen sulfite ester;Cysteine sulfinate;Cysteine sulfinic acid;L-cysteine sulfinic acid;L-cysteinesulfinic acid;2-amino-3-sulfino-propionic acid;Cysteine-s,s-dioxide;Cysteine-s-dioxide;L-cysteine-s,s-dioxide;2-amino-3-sulfino-propionate;2-amino-3-sulphino-propionate;2-amino-3-sulphino-propionic acid
PW_C000789
3S-Ala
708
8
77781
111
120560
122
123194
135
544
Fe2+
HMDB0000692
Iron is a chemical element with the symbol Fe and atomic number 26. Iron makes up 5% of the Earth's crust and is second in abundance to aluminium among the metals and fourth in abundance among the elements. Physiologically, it. exists as an ion in the body. Iron (as Fe2+, ferrous ion) is a necessary trace element used by all known living organisms. Iron-containing enzymes, usually containing heme prosthetic groups, participate in catalysis of oxidation reactions in biology, and in transport of a number of soluble gases. Iron is an essential constituent of hemoglobin, cytochrome, and other components of respiratory enzyme systems. Its chief functions are in the transport of oxygen to tissue (hemoglobin) and in cellular oxidation mechanisms. Inorganic iron involved in redox reactions is also found in the iron-sulfur clusters of many enzymes, such as nitrogenase (involved in the synthesis of ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen) and hydrogenase. A class of non-heme iron proteins is responsible for a wide range of functions such as ribonucleotide reductase (reduces ribose to deoxyribose; DNA biosynthesis) and purple acid phosphatase (hydrolysis of phosphate esters). When the body is fighting a bacterial infection, the body sequesters iron inside of cells (mostly stored in the storage molecule ferritin) so that it cannot be used by bacteria. Depletion of iron stores may result in iron-deficiency anemia. Iron is used to build up the blood in anemia. Humans experience iron toxicity above 20 milligrams of iron for every kilogram of weight, and 60 milligrams per kilogram is a lethal dose. Over-consumption of iron, often the result of children eating large quantities of ferrous sulfate tablets intended for adult consumption, is the most common toxicological cause of death in children under six. The DRI lists the Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) for adults as 45 mg/day. For children under fourteen years old the UL is 40 mg/day. Iron is a metal extracted from iron ore, and is almost never found in the free elemental state.
15438-31-0
C14818
27284
29033
Ferric-Hydroxamate-Complexes
25394
DB01592
[Fe++]
Fe
InChI=1S/Fe/q+2
CWYNVVGOOAEACU-UHFFFAOYSA-N
lambda2-iron(2+) ion
55.845
55.934942133
0
lambda2-iron(2+) ion
2
2
FDB016251
Armco iron;Carbonyl iron;Fe;Ferrovac e;Hematite;Infed;Loha;Limonite;Magnetite;Malleable iron;Metopirone;Metyrapone;Pzho;Pzh2m;Remko;Suy-b 2;Taconite;Venofer;Wrought iron;Fe (ii) ion;Fe(ii);Fe2+;Fe(2+);Ferrous ion;Iron ion(2+)
PW_C000544
Fe2+
398
19
641
3
678
31
692
20
709
8
1777
2
7041
163
7052
160
12060
225
12143
151
77179
132
77740
112
77751
129
77760
341
77782
111
120544
407
120557
414
120570
122
121765
124
123178
119
123191
450
123204
135
124316
118
126143
299
126185
481
127650
388
140710
49
140716
18
1750
Cysteamine
HMDB0002991
Cysteamine is a product of the constitutive degradation of coenzyme A, a process that occurs in all tissues, although some tissues such as brain and heart may have exceptionally high coenzyme A turnover rates. Cysteamine has only one known function, and that is as a precursor for the formation of hypotaurine, which is subsequently oxidized to taurine. The rate of cysteamine production as a result of coenzyme A breakdown is not well understood but it is clear that cysteamine levels are not as dramatically affected by dietary habits as are cysteine levels. Cysteamine is generated from hypotaurine by cysteamine dioxygenase (EC:1.13.11.19), an enzyme that was recently identified in mammals (PMID: 17581819). Cysteamine is the simplest stable aminothiol found in the body. It is used in the treatment of disorders of cystine excretion. Cysteamine cleaves the disulfide bond with cysteine to produce molecules that can escape the metabolic defect in cystinosis and cystinuria. Cyst(e)amine may also serve as an endogenous regulator of immune system activity as well as a potential therapeutic agent for the treatment of Huntington disease. Cysteamine is also used as a radiation-protective agent that oxidizes in air to form cystamine. It can be given intravenously or orally to treat radiation sickness. -- Wikipedia.
60-23-1
C01678
6058
17141
CPD-3721
5834
DB00847
NCCS
C2H7NS
InChI=1S/C2H7NS/c3-1-2-4/h4H,1-3H2
UFULAYFCSOUIOV-UHFFFAOYSA-N
2-aminoethane-1-thiol
77.149
77.029919919
-0.52
2
cysteamine
0
1
FDB023091
(2-mercaptoethyl)amine;2-amino-1-ethanethiol;2-aminoethanethiol;2-aminoethyl mercaptan;2-mercaptoethanamine;Aminoethyl mercaptan;Becaptan;Cash;Cisteamina;Cysteamide;Cysteamin;Cysteamine;Cysteinamine;Decarboxycysteine;Ethanethiolamine;Lambraten;Lambratene;Mecramine;Mercamin;Mercamine;Mercaptamin;Mercaptamine;Merkamin;Riacon;Thioethanolamine;B-aminoethanethiol;B-aminoethylthiol;B-mercaptoethylamine;Beta-aminoethanethiol;Beta-aminoethylthiol;Beta-mercaptoethylamine;2-amino-ethanethiol;Beta-mea;Mea;Mercaptamina;Mercaptaminum;β-aminoethanethiol;β-aminoethylthiol;B-mea;β-mea;β-mercaptoethylamine;Cysteaminium
PW_C001750
Cystamn
1146
14
1233
8
5761
140
78445
115
79012
111
120849
405
120925
122
123430
376
123492
135
125836
478
127289
209
1316
Carbon dioxide
HMDB0001967
Carbon dioxide is a colorless, odorless gas that can be formed by the body and is necessary for the respiration cycle of plants and animals. Carbon dioxide is produced during respiration by all animals, fungi and microorganisms that depend on living and decaying plants for food, either directly or indirectly. It is, therefore, a major component of the carbon cycle. Additionally, carbon dioxide is used by plants during photosynthesis to make sugars which may either be consumed again in respiration or used as the raw material to produce polysaccharides such as starch and cellulose, proteins and the wide variety of other organic compounds required for plant growth and development. When inhaled at concentrations much higher than usual atmospheric levels, it can produce a sour taste in the mouth and a stinging sensation in the nose and throat. These effects result from the gas dissolving in the mucous membranes and saliva, forming a weak solution of carbonic acid. Carbon dioxide is used by the food industry, the oil industry, and the chemical industry. Carbon dioxide is used to produce carbonated soft drinks and soda water. Traditionally, the carbonation in beer and sparkling wine comes about through natural fermentation, but some manufacturers carbonate these drinks artificially.
124-38-9
C00011
280
16526
274
O=C=O
CO2
InChI=1S/CO2/c2-1-3
CURLTUGMZLYLDI-UHFFFAOYSA-N
methanedione
44.0095
43.989829244
0.63
0
carbon dioxide
0
0
DBMET00423
FDB014084
Carbon oxide;Carbon-12 dioxide;Carbonic acid anhydride;Carbonic acid gas;Carbonic anhydride;[co2];Co2;E 290;E-290;E290;R-744
PW_C001316
CO2
50
8
121
1
204
4
480
13
503
18
640
3
677
31
695
20
806
5
1133
43
1638
49
1745
2
2551
17
3144
70
5283
103
5320
111
5750
108
5771
101
5968
100
6026
155
6078
161
6471
178
6637
107
6922
190
7017
160
7035
163
7061
188
7163
205
7308
198
7333
213
7461
222
7530
210
8215
225
8223
151
9158
249
11849
277
11908
170
12464
226
12688
290
42626
315
43523
318
76994
293
77122
133
77170
132
77470
333
77739
112
77750
129
77763
341
78077
134
78405
356
78427
334
78941
331
79227
130
80008
368
80675
119
80717
135
94836
384
113291
391
115549
121
119954
406
120089
122
120155
407
120364
412
120556
414
120833
419
120922
124
120991
408
121284
125
121505
383
122744
120
123011
446
123190
450
123418
455
123489
118
123556
374
123855
136
124063
398
125344
479
125460
297
125516
481
125824
490
125870
299
125931
482
126280
480
126887
501
127052
206
127277
507
127331
388
127390
502
140798
185
771
Hypotaurine
HMDB0000965
Hypotaurine belongs to the class of organic compounds known as sulfinic acids. Sulfinic acids are compounds containing a sulfinic acid functional group, with the general structure RS(=O)OH (R = organyl, not H). Hypotaurine is soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). Hypotaurine has been found in human prostate tissue, and has also been primarily detected in saliva, feces, urine, and blood. Within the cell, hypotaurine is primarily located in the cytoplasm. In humans, hypotaurine is involved in the taurine and hypotaurine metabolism pathway. Hypotaurine is a product of enzyme cysteamine dioxygenase [EC 1.13.11.19] in taurine and hypotaurine metabolism pathway (KEGG). It may function as an antioxidant and a protective agent under physiological conditions (PMID 14992269).
300-84-5
C00519
107812
16668
HYPOTAURINE
96959
NCCS(O)=O
C2H7NO2S
InChI=1S/C2H7NO2S/c3-1-2-6(4)5/h1-3H2,(H,4,5)
VVIUBCNYACGLLV-UHFFFAOYSA-N
2-aminoethane-1-sulfinic acid
109.147
109.019749163
-0.45
2
hypotaurine
0
0
FDB022342
2-amino-ethanesulfinate;2-amino-ethanesulfinic acid;2-aminoethanesulfinate;2-aminoethanesulfinic acid;2-aminoethylsulfinate;2-aminoethylsulfinic acid;Cystaminesulfinate;Cystaminesulfinic acid;Hypotaurine
PW_C000771
Hypotau
1234
8
79013
111
120926
122
123493
135
9794
Iron
HMDB0015531
Iron is a metallic element found in certain minerals, in nearly all soils, and in mineral waters. Iron is required for life. It exists in all living species, ranging from bacteria to humans. It can be found primarily in blood and it is an essential constituent of hemoglobin, cytochrome, and other components of respiratory enzyme systems. Its chief functions are in the transport of oxygen to tissue (hemoglobin) and in cellular oxidation mechanisms. Depletion of iron stores may result in iron-deficiency anemia. Iron is used to build up the blood in anemia. In humans, iron is involved in several metabolic pathways, some of which include the rofecoxib pathway, magnesium salicylate action pathway, etodolac pathway, and diclofenac pathway. Iron is also involved in several metabolic disorders, some of which include adenine phosphoribosyltransferase deficiency (APRT), porphyria variegata (PV), adenylosuccinate lyase deficiency, and AICA-ribosiduria. The major activity of supplemental iron is in the prevention and treatment of iron-deficiency anemia. Iron has putative immune-enhancing, anticarcinogenic, and cognition-enhancing activities. Iron can be found in a number of food items such as chinese water chestnut, hyssop, daikon radish, and peppermint, which makes it a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
7439-89-6
C00023
23925
18248
22368
DB01592
[Fe++]
Fe
InChI=1S/Fe/q+2
CWYNVVGOOAEACU-UHFFFAOYSA-N
lambda2-iron(2+) ion
55.845
55.934942133
0
lambda2-iron(2+) ion
2
2
C00023
26fe;Eisen;Fe;Fer;Ferrum;Hierro
PW_C009794
Iron
1138
8
1266
5
1533
2
1635
49
3119
29
4341
18
7330
213
12056
225
77683
130
77928
336
78261
132
78409
111
78428
334
78938
331
120838
122
120992
408
121256
429
121371
124
121502
383
121727
125
123423
135
123557
374
123826
464
123930
118
124060
398
124278
136
125829
297
125932
482
126044
299
127282
205
127391
502
127496
388
1148
Pyridoxal 5'-phosphate
HMDB0001491
This is the active form of vitamin B6 serving as a coenzyme for synthesis of amino acids, neurotransmitters (serotonin, norepinephrine), sphingolipids, aminolevulinic acid. During transamination of amino acids, pyridoxal phosphate is transiently converted into pyridoxamine phosphate (pyridoxamine). -- Pubchem; Pyridoxal-phosphate (PLP, pyridoxal-5'-phosphate) is a cofactor of many enzymatic reactions. It is the active form of vitamin B6 which comprises three natural organic compounds, pyridoxal, pyridoxamine and pyridoxine. -- Wikipedia.
54-47-7
C00018
1051
18405
PYRIDOXAL_PHOSPHATE
1022
DB00114
CC1=NC=C(COP(O)(O)=O)C(C=O)=C1O
C8H10NO6P
InChI=1S/C8H10NO6P/c1-5-8(11)7(3-10)6(2-9-5)4-15-16(12,13)14/h2-3,11H,4H2,1H3,(H2,12,13,14)
NGVDGCNFYWLIFO-UHFFFAOYSA-N
[(4-formyl-5-hydroxy-6-methylpyridin-3-yl)methoxy]phosphonic acid
247.1419
247.024573569
-1.64
3
pyridoxal phosphate
0
-2
FDB021820
Apolon b6;Biosechs;Codecarboxylase;Coenzyme b6;Hairoxal;Hexermin-p;Hi-pyridoxin;Hiadelon;Himitan;Pal-p;Plp;Phosphopyridoxal;Phosphopyridoxal coenzyme;Pidopidon;Piodel;Pydoxal;Pyridoxal 5'-phosphate;Pyridoxal 5-phosphate;Pyridoxal p;Pyridoxal phosphate;Pyridoxal-p;Pyridoxyl phosphate;Pyromijin;Sechvitan;Vitahexin-p;Vitazechs;3-hydroxy-2-methyl-5-[(phosphonooxy)methyl]-4-pyridinecarboxaldehyde;3-hydroxy-5-(hydroxymethyl)-2-methylisonicotinaldehyde 5-phosphate;Phosphoric acid mono-(4-formyl-5-hydroxy-6-methyl-pyridin-3-ylmethyl) ester;Pyridoxal 5-monophosphoric acid ester;Pyridoxal 5'-(dihydrogen phosphate);Pyridoxal-5'-phosphate;Pyridoxal 5'-phosphoric acid;3-hydroxy-5-(hydroxymethyl)-2-methylisonicotinaldehyde 5-phosphoric acid;Phosphate mono-(4-formyl-5-hydroxy-6-methyl-pyridin-3-ylmethyl) ester;Pyridoxal 5-monophosphate ester;Pyridoxal 5'-(dihydrogen phosphoric acid);Pyridoxal 5-phosphoric acid;Pyridoxal phosphoric acid;Pyridoxal-5'-phosphoric acid
PW_C001148
Pyr-5'P
18
2
32
4
45
3
51
8
122
1
401
19
696
20
1110
42
1450
50
1458
26
2120
10
2150
49
5325
111
5416
117
5421
103
5441
118
5455
120
5567
132
5581
133
6533
85
7018
160
7167
205
7216
212
7222
213
11858
161
12175
151
12623
31
12628
18
12684
289
12689
290
77017
253
77037
225
77041
293
77052
224
77526
112
77764
341
77973
346
77979
327
78292
345
78855
332
78862
331
80696
135
98630
7
119912
122
120024
124
120029
406
120087
407
120817
418
121149
423
121155
424
122069
123
122076
383
122834
119
123402
454
123721
458
123727
459
124620
447
124627
398
125302
297
125402
299
125407
479
125458
481
125803
489
126224
298
126231
495
126942
388
126947
501
126996
206
127258
506
127786
513
127793
390
1701
Cysteic acid
HMDB0002757
Cysteic acid, also known as cysteate or 3-sulfoalanine, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alpha amino acids. These are amino acids in which the amino group is attached to the carbon atom immediately adjacent to the carboxylate group (alpha carbon). Cysteic acid is soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). Within the cell, cysteic acid is primarily located in the mitochondria. Cysteic acid exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. Cysteic acid and oxoglutaric acid can be converted into L-glutamic acid and 3-sulfopyruvic acid; which is catalyzed by the enzyme aspartate transaminase. In humans, cysteic acid is involved in the taurine and hypotaurine metabolism pathway. Cysteic acid is a crystalline amino acid formed in the oxidation of cysteine; it is a precursor of taurine.
13100-82-8
C00506
25701
21260
L-CYSTEATE
23942
NC(CS(O)(=O)=O)C(O)=O
C3H7NO5S
InChI=1S/C3H7NO5S/c4-2(3(5)6)1-10(7,8)9/h2H,1,4H2,(H,5,6)(H,7,8,9)
XVOYSCVBGLVSOL-UHFFFAOYSA-N
2-amino-3-sulfopropanoic acid
169.156
169.004493029
-0.36
3
cysteic acid
0
-1
FDB023061
2-amino-3-sulfopropanoate;2-amino-3-sulfopropanoic acid;2-amino-3-sulfopropionate;2-amino-3-sulfopropionic acid;3-sulfoalanine;Cepteate;Cepteic acid;Cipteate;Cipteic acid;Cysteate;Cysteinate;Cysteinesulfonate;Cysteinesulfonic acid;Cysteinic acid;Cysterate;Cysteric acid;L-cysteate;L-cysteic acid;Beta-sulfoalanine;Cysteine sulfonic acid;3-sulphoalanine;B-sulfoalanine;B-sulphoalanine;Beta-sulphoalanine;β-sulfoalanine;β-sulphoalanine;Cysteine sulfonate;Cysteine sulphonate;Cysteine sulphonic acid
PW_C001701
CystAc
1237
8
79014
111
120929
122
123495
135
171
Taurine
HMDB0000251
Taurine is a sulfur amino acid like methionine, cystine, cysteine and homocysteine. It is a lesser-known amino acid because it is not incorporated into the structural building blocks of protein. Yet taurine is an essential amino acid in pre-term and newborn infants of humans and many other species. Adults can synthesize their own taurine, yet are probably dependent in part on dietary taurine. Taurine is abundant in the brain, heart, breast, gallbladder and kidney and has important roles in health and disease in these organs. Taurine has many diverse biological functions serving as a neurotransmitter in the brain, a stabilizer of cell membranes and a facilitator in the transport of ions such as sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium. Taurine is highly concentrated in animal and fish protein, which are good sources of dietary taurine. It can be synthesized by the body from cysteine when vitamin B6 is present. Deficiency of taurine occurs in premature infants and neonates fed formula milk, and in various disease states. Inborn errors of taurine metabolism have been described. OMIM 168605, an unusual neuropsychiatric disorder inherited in an autosomal dominant fashion through 3 generations of a family. Symptoms began late in the fifth decade in 6 affected persons and death occurred after 4 to 6 years. The earliest and most prominent symptom was mental depression not responsive to antidepressant drugs or electroconvulsive therapy. Sleep disturbances, exhaustion and marked weight loss were features. Parkinsonism developed later, and respiratory failure occurred terminally. OMIM 145350 describes congestive cardiomyopathy and markedly elevated urinary taurine levels (about 5 times normal). Other family members had late or holosystolic mitral valve prolapse and elevated urinary taurine values (about 2.5 times normal). In 2 with mitral valve prolapse, congestive cardiomyopathy eventually developed while the amounts of urinary taurine doubled. Taurine, after GABA, is the second most important inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain. Its inhibitory effect is one source of taurine's anticonvulsant and antianxiety properties. It also lowers glutamic acid in the brain, and preliminary clinical trials suggest taurine may be useful in some forms of epilepsy. Taurine in the brain is usually associated with zinc or manganese. The amino acids alanine and glutamic acid, as well as pantothenic acid, inhibit taurine metabolism while vitamins A and B6, zinc and manganese help build taurine. Cysteine and B6 are the nutrients most directly involved in taurine synthesis. Taurine levels have been found to decrease significantly in many depressed patients. One reason that the findings are not entirely clear is because taurine is often elevated in the blood of epileptics who need it. It is often difficult to distinguish compensatory changes in human biochemistry from true metabolic or deficiency disease. Low levels of taurine are found in retinitis pigmentosa. Taurine deficiency in experimental animals produces degeneration of light-sensitive cells. Therapeutic applications of taurine to eye disease are likely to be forthcoming. Taurine has many important metabolic roles. Supplements can stimulate prolactin and insulin release. The parathyroid gland makes a peptide hormone called glutataurine (glutamic acid-taurine), which further demonstrates taurine's role in endocrinology. Taurine increases bilirubin and cholesterol excretion in bile, critical to normal gallbladder function. It seems to inhibit the effect of morphine and potentiates the effects of opiate antagonists. Low plasma taurine levels have been found in a variety of conditions, i.e., depression, hypertension, hypothyroidism, gout, institutionalized patients, infertility, obesity, kidney failure and others. (http://www.dcnutrition.com/AminoAcids/).
107-35-7
C00245
1123
15891
1091
DB01956
NCCS(O)(=O)=O
C2H7NO3S
InChI=1S/C2H7NO3S/c3-1-2-7(4,5)6/h1-3H2,(H,4,5,6)
XOAAWQZATWQOTB-UHFFFAOYSA-N
2-aminoethane-1-sulfonic acid
125.147
125.014663785
-0.08
2
taurine
0
0
FDB003191
1-aminoethane-2-sulfonate;1-aminoethane-2-sulfonic acid;2-aminoethanesulfonate;2-aminoethanesulfonic acid;2-aminoethylsulfonate;2-aminoethylsulfonic acid;2-sulfoethylamine;Aminoethylsulfonate;Aminoethylsulfonic acid;Taurine;B-aminoethylsulfonate;B-aminoethylsulfonic acid;Beta-aminoethylsulfonate;Beta-aminoethylsulfonic acid;Aminoethylsulphonate;Aminoethylsulphonic acid;2-aminoethanesulphonate;2-aminoethanesulphonic acid
PW_C000171
Taurine
1238
8
2826
29
2860
31
6349
107
6350
108
7354
188
7356
187
42374
318
42375
315
77642
336
77670
129
79015
111
120930
122
121684
429
121712
414
123496
135
124233
464
124263
450
2088
5-L-Glutamyl-taurine
HMDB0004195
5-L-Glutamyl-taurine, also known as glutaurin or gamma-L-glutamyltaurine, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as glutamine and derivatives. Glutamine and derivatives are compounds containing glutamine or a derivative thereof resulting from reaction of glutamine at the amino group or the carboxy group, or from the replacement of any hydrogen of glycine by a heteroatom. 5-L-Glutamyl-taurine is slightly soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). 5-L-Glutamyl-taurine exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. In humans, 5-L-glutamyl-taurine is involved in the taurine and hypotaurine metabolism pathway. 5-L-Glutamyl-taurine is an intermediate in Taurine and hypotaurine metabolism. 5-L-Glutamyl-taurine is produced from Taurine via the enzyme gamma-glutamyltranspeptidase (EC 2.3.2.2).
56488-60-9
C05844
68759
62003
N[C@@H](CCC(=O)NCCS(O)(=O)=O)C(O)=O
C7H14N2O6S
InChI=1S/C7H14N2O6S/c8-5(7(11)12)1-2-6(10)9-3-4-16(13,14)15/h5H,1-4,8H2,(H,9,10)(H,11,12)(H,13,14,15)/t5-/m0/s1
WGXUDTHMEITUBO-YFKPBYRVSA-N
(2S)-2-amino-4-[(2-sulfoethyl)carbamoyl]butanoic acid
254.261
254.05725688
-1.41
4
(2S)-2-amino-4-[(2-sulfoethyl)carbamoyl]butanoic acid
0
-1
FDB023332
5-glutamyl-taurine;Glutaurine;(2s)-2-amino-5-oxo-5-(2-sulfoethylamino)pentanoate;(2s)-2-amino-5-oxo-5-(2-sulphoethylamino)pentanoate;(2s)-2-amino-5-oxo-5-(2-sulphoethylamino)pentanoic acid
PW_C002088
Glutau
1239
8
79016
111
120931
122
123497
135
18
A (5-L-glutamyl)-peptide
ProteinComplex
PW_EC000018
15857
ChEBI
A5LGP
19
Peptide
ProteinComplex
PW_EC000019
16670
ChEBI
Peptide
891
Cysteine dioxygenase type 1
Q16878
Initiates several important metabolic pathways related to pyruvate and several sulfurate compounds including sulfate, hypotaurine and taurine. Critical regulator of cellular cysteine concentrations. Has an important role in maintaining the hepatic concentation of intracellular free cysteine within a proper narrow range.
HMDBP00948
CDO1
5q23.2
CH471086
1
1.13.11.20
710
8
3883
2-aminoethanethiol dioxygenase
Q96SZ5
HMDBP08667
ADO
10q21.3
CH471083
1
1.13.11.19
1235
8
879
Cysteine sulfinic acid decarboxylase
Q9Y600
HMDBP00936
CSAD
12q13.11-q14.3
CH471054
1
4.1.1.29
1236
8
667
Glutamate decarboxylase 1
Q99259
Catalyzes the production of GABA.
HMDBP00703
GAD1
2q31
M70434
1
4.1.1.15
52
8
123
1
141161
787
142912
789
143540
3
2599
Gamma-glutamyltransferase 6
Q6P531
Cleaves glutathione conjugates (By similarity).
HMDBP07358
GGT6
17p13.2
AK074646
1
2.3.2.2; 3.4.19.13
165
14
1240
8
4651
2
202
Cysteine dioxygenase type 1
1
PW_P000202
220
891
1
91
544
1
344
2-aminoethanethiol dioxygenase
1
PW_P000344
365
3883
1
154
9794
1
345
Cysteine sulfinic acid decarboxylase
1
PW_P000345
366
879
2
155
1148
1
7
Glutamate decarboxylase 1
1
PW_P000007
8
667
2
8
1148
1
47
8
346
Gamma-glutamyltransferase 6
1
PW_P000346
367
2599
2
710
false
PW_R000710
Right
2907
448
1
Compound
false
2908
1065
1
Compound
true
2909
789
1
Compound
false
219
202
1.13.11.20
853
true
PW_R000853
Right
3457
448
1
Compound
false
3458
1750
1
Compound
false
3459
1316
1
Compound
true
110
false
PW_R000110
Right
443
1750
1
Compound
false
444
1065
1
Compound
true
445
771
1
Compound
false
417
344
1.13.11.19
854
false
PW_R000854
Right
3460
789
1
Compound
false
3461
771
1
Compound
false
3462
1316
1
Compound
true
418
345
4.1.1.29
419
7
4.1.1.15
855
true
PW_R000855
Right
3463
789
1
Compound
false
3464
1701
1
Compound
false
856
false
PW_R000856
Right
3465
1701
1
Compound
false
3466
171
1
Compound
false
3467
1316
1
Compound
true
420
345
4.1.1.29
421
7
4.1.1.15
857
false
PW_R000857
Right
3468
171
1
Compound
false
3469
18
1
ElementCollection
false
3470
2088
1
Compound
false
3471
19
1
ElementCollection
false
422
346
2002
448
8
81
false
455
245
10
regular
200
190
2003
1065
8
65
false
406
446
10
regular
78
78
2004
789
8
81
false
452
750
10
regular
200
190
2005
544
8
9
false
510
570
19
regular
100
25
2006
1750
8
81
false
1035
243
10
regular
200
190
2007
1316
8
52
false
876
174
10
regular
78
78
2008
1065
8
65
false
1218
454
10
regular
78
78
2009
771
8
81
false
1034
748
10
regular
200
190
2010
9794
8
9
false
1077
553
19
regular
100
25
2011
1316
8
52
false
925
626
10
regular
78
78
2012
1148
8
9
false
785
800
10
regular
100
35
2014
1316
8
52
false
925
991
10
regular
78
78
2015
1148
8
9
false
785
950
10
regular
100
35
2016
1701
8
81
false
452
1225
10
regular
200
190
2017
171
8
81
false
1037
1223
10
regular
200
190
2018
1316
8
52
false
923
1094
10
regular
78
78
2019
1148
8
9
false
792
1270
10
regular
100
35
2020
1316
8
52
false
918
1471
10
regular
78
78
2021
1148
8
9
false
789
1425
10
regular
100
35
2022
2088
8
81
false
1542
1223
10
regular
200
190
21
18
37
8
true
1752
1313
12
regular
100
90
22
19
37
8
true
2082
1323
12
regular
100
90
762
891
8
2
false
480
580
8
subunit
regular
150
70
763
3883
8
2
false
1057
563
8
subunit
regular
150
70
764
879
8
6
false
750
730
8
subunit
regular
160
80
766
667
8
6
false
750
880
8
subunit
regular
160
80
767
879
8
6
false
752
1200
8
subunit
regular
160
80
768
667
8
6
false
749
1355
8
subunit
regular
160
80
769
2599
8
8
false
1322
1278
8
subunit
regular
140
85
712
202
48
8
755
762
301
2005
2896
Cofactor
713
344
48
8
756
763
302
2010
2903
Cofactor
714
345
48
8
757
764
303
2012
2907
Cofactor
716
7
48
8
759
766
305
2015
2915
Cofactor
717
345
48
8
760
767
306
2019
2921
Cofactor
718
7
48
8
761
768
307
2021
2925
Cofactor
719
346
48
8
762
769
2893
M555 435 C555 465 555 550 555 580
5
false
18
2894
M484 485 C520 485 555 550 555 580
5
false
18
2895
M552 750 C552 720 555 680 555 650
5
false
18
true
M 25.946855044164835 13.26155629629604 L 11 12 L 17.380887721185843 25.575134323078345
false
2896
M250 150 L250 200 L300 150 z
10
true
18
2897
M655 340 C685 340 744 340 807 340
5
false
18
2898
M1035 338 C1005 338 856 340 806 340
5
false
18
true
M 25.946855044164835 13.26155629629604 L 11 12 L 17.380887721185843 25.575134323078345
false
2899
M915 252 C915 283 857 340 806 340
5
false
18
true
M 25.946855044164835 13.26155629629604 L 11 12 L 17.380887721185843 25.575134323078345
false
2900
M1135 433 C1135 463 1132 533 1132 563
5
false
18
2901
M1218 493 C1187 493 1132 533 1132 563
5
false
18
2902
M1134 748 C1134 718 1132 663 1132 633
5
false
18
true
M 25.946855044164835 13.26155629629604 L 11 12 L 17.380887721185843 25.575134323078345
false
2903
M250 150 L250 200 L300 150 z
10
true
18
2904
M652 770 C682 770 720 770 750 770
5
false
18
2905
M1033 770 C1003 770 942 770 912 770
5
false
18
true
M 25.946855044164835 13.26155629629604 L 11 12 L 17.380887721185843 25.575134323078345
false
2906
M964 704 C964 738 942 770 912 770
5
false
18
true
M 25.946855044164835 13.26155629629604 L 11 12 L 17.380887721185843 25.575134323078345
false
2907
M1415.5 1225 L1415.5 1275 L1465.5 1225 z
10
true
18
2912
M652 920 C682 920 720 920 750 920
5
false
18
2913
M1033 920 C1003 920 942 920 912 920
5
false
18
true
M 25.946855044164835 13.26155629629604 L 11 12 L 17.380887721185843 25.575134323078345
false
2914
M964 991 C964 961 942 920 912 920
5
false
18
true
M 25.946855044164835 13.26155629629604 L 11 12 L 17.380887721185843 25.575134323078345
false
2915
M1415.5 1225 L1415.5 1275 L1465.5 1225 z
10
true
18
2916
M552 940 C552 970 552 1194 552 1225
5
false
18
true
M 944.5 1257.0096189432334 L 952 1270 L 959.5 1257.0096189432334
false
2917
M552 1225 C552 1195 1028 1178 1052 1195
5
true
18
true
M 25.946855044164835 13.26155629629604 L 11 12 L 17.380887721185843 25.575134323078345
false
2918
M652 1240 C682 1240 722 1240 752 1240
5
false
18
2919
M1035 1240 C1005 1240 944 1240 914 1240
5
false
18
true
M 25.946855044164835 13.26155629629604 L 11 12 L 17.380887721185843 25.575134323078345
false
2920
M962 1172 C962 1199 944 1240 914 1240
5
false
18
true
M 25.946855044164835 13.26155629629604 L 11 12 L 17.380887721185843 25.575134323078345
false
2921
M1327 1665 L1327 1715 L1377 1665 z
10
true
18
2922
M653 1395 C683 1395 719 1395 749 1395
5
false
18
2923
M1034 1395 C1004 1395 941 1395 911 1395
5
false
18
true
M 25.946855044164835 13.26155629629604 L 11 12 L 17.380887721185843 25.575134323078345
false
2924
M957 1471 C957 1441 941 1395 911 1395
5
false
18
true
M 25.946855044164835 13.26155629629604 L 11 12 L 17.380887721185843 25.575134323078345
false
2925
M1414.5 1665 L1414.5 1715 L1464.5 1665 z
10
true
18
2926
M1237 1318 C1267 1318 1292 1318 1322 1318
5
false
18
2927
M1542 1318 C1512 1318 1492 1318 1462 1318
5
false
18
true
M 25.946855044164835 13.26155629629604 L 11 12 L 17.380887721185843 25.575134323078345
false
2928
M1802 1423 C1802 1456 1292 1318 1322 1318
5
true
18
2929
M2132 1423 C2132 1458 1492 1318 1462 1318
5
true
18
7553
M1137 1413 C1137 1443 1137 1493 1137 1523
5
false
18
true
M 1029.5 1510.0096189432334 L 1037 1523 L 1044.5 1510.0096189432334
false
7554
M454 270 C424 270 380 270 350 270
5
false
18
true
M 341.0096189432334 277.5 L 354 270 L 341.0096189432334 262.5
false
7555
M455 400 C425 400 380 400 350 400
5
false
18
true
M 342.0096189432334 407.5 L 355 400 L 342.0096189432334 392.5
false
585
48
710
8
2168
2002
2893
Left
2169
2003
2894
Left
2170
2004
2895
Right
558
219
712
586
48
853
8
2171
2002
2897
Left
2172
2006
2898
Right
2173
2007
2899
Right
587
48
110
8
2174
2006
2900
Left
2175
2008
2901
Left
2176
2009
2902
Right
559
417
713
588
48
854
8
2177
2004
2904
Left
2178
2009
2905
Right
2179
2011
2906
Right
560
418
714
590
48
854
8
2183
2004
2912
Left
2184
2009
2913
Right
2185
2014
2914
Right
562
419
716
591
48
855
8
2186
2004
2916
Left
2187
2016
2917
Right
592
48
856
8
2188
2016
2918
Left
2189
2017
2919
Right
2190
2018
2920
Right
563
420
717
593
48
856
8
2191
2016
2922
Left
2192
2017
2923
Right
2193
2020
2924
Right
564
421
718
594
48
857
8
2194
2017
2926
Left
2195
2022
2927
Right
21
21
2928
Left
22
22
2929
Right
565
422
719
290
255
48
14
false
1062
1523
16
regular
272
2017
7553
Left
291
253
48
14
false
200
235
16
regular
273
2002
7554
Right
292
254
48
14
false
200
365
16
regular
274
2002
7555
Right
187170
1225
795
1.6
1.6
0
3
14
327
267
479696
1300
1010
1.6
1.6
-100
2
3
280
360
133
M126 225 C126 175 176 125 226 125 C696 125 1308 125 1778 125 C1828 125 1878 175 1878 225 C1878 634 1878 1165 1878 1574 C1878 1624 1828 1674 1778 1674 C1308 1674 696 1674 226 1674 C176 1674 126 1624 126 1574 C126 1165 126 634 126 225
1
true
6
1752.0
1549.0
141
235
Extracellular Space
1430
30
20
1.0
1.0
200
15
142
235
Intracellular Space
1425
160
20
1.0
1.0
200
15